Product Code Database
A scale model is a physical model that is geometrically similar to an object (known as the prototype). Scale models are generally smaller than large prototypes such as vehicles, buildings, or people; but may be larger than small prototypes such as anatomical structures or subatomic particles. Models built to the same scale as the prototype are called .
Scale models are used as tools in engineering design and testing, promotion and sales, filmmaking special effects, military strategy, and hobbies such as rail transport modeling, wargaming and racing; and as toys. Model building is also pursued as a hobby for the sake of .
Scale models are constructed of plastic, wood, or metal. They are usually painted with enamel paint, lacquer, or acrylic paint. Model prototypes include all types of vehicles (railroad trains, cars, trucks, military vehicles, aircraft, and spacecraft), buildings, people, and science fiction themes (spaceships and robots).
Models are obtained by three different means: plastic model, scratch building, and collecting pre-assembled models. Scratch building is the only option available to structural engineers, and among hobbyists requires the highest level of skill, craftsmanship, and time; scratch builders tend to be the most concerned with accuracy and detail. Kit assembly is done either "out of the box", or with modifications (known as "kitbashing"). Many kit manufacturers, for various reasons leave something to be desired in terms of accuracy, but using the kit parts as a baseline and adding after-market conversion kits, alternative decal sets, and some scratch building can correct this without the master craftsmanship or time expenditure required by scratch building.
The most famous wood racing event is the Boy Scouts of America's annual Pinewood Derby which debuted in 1953. Entry is open to Cub Scouts. Entrants are supplied with a kit containing a wooden block out of which to carve the body, four plastic wheels, and four axle nails; or they may purchase their own commercially available kit. Regulations generally limit the car's weight to , width to , and length to . The rules permit the cars to be augmented with tungsten carbide weights up to the limit, and graphite axle lubricant.
For structural engineering scale models, it is important for several specific quantities to be scaled according to the theory of similitude. These quantities can be broadly grouped into three categories: loading, geometry, and material properties. A good reference for considering scales for a structural scale model under static loading conditions in the elastic regime is presented in Table 2.2 of the book Structural Modeling and Experimental Techniques.Harris, H., et al. 1999, p. 62
Structural engineering scale models can use different approaches to satisfy the similitude requirements of scale model fabrication and testing. A practical introduction to scale model design and testing is discussed in the paper "Pseudodynamic Testing of Scaled Models".Kumar, et al. 1997, p. 1
In the first half of the 20th century, navies used hand-made models of warships for identification and instruction in a variety of scales. That of 1:500 was called "teacher scale." Besides models made in 1:1200 and 1:2400 scales, there were also ones made to 1:2000 and 1:5000. Some, made in Britain, were labelled "1 inch to 110 feet", which would be 1:1320 scale, but are not necessarily accurate.
Manned models are used for research (e.g. ship behaviour), engineering (e.g. port layout) and for Port Revel (e.g. , masters and ). They are usually at 1:25 scale.
Enamel paint has classically been used for model making and is generally considered the most durable paint for plastics. It is available in small bottles for brushing and airbrushing, and aerosol paint. Disadvantages include toxicity and a strong chemical smell of the paint and its mineral spirit paint thinner/brush cleaner. Modern enamels are made of alkyd resin to limit toxicity. Popular brands include Testor's in the US and Humbrol (now Hornby Railways) in the UK.
Lacquer paint produces a hard, durable finish, and requires its own lacquer thinner.
Enamels have been generally replaced in popularity by acrylic paint, which is water-based. Advantages include decreased toxicity and chemical smell, and brushes clean with soap and water. Disadvantages include possibly limited durability on plastic, requiring priming coats, at least two color coats, and allowing adequate cure time. Popular brands include the Japanese import Tamiya.
Some beginner's level kits avoid the necessity to paint the model by adding and chrome plating to the plastic.
| + Model railroad scales !Name !Scale !Standard gauge !Narrow gauge !Use | ||||
| T | 1:450 | Indoor | ||
| ZZ | 1:300 | Indoor | ||
| Z | 1:220 | Indoor | ||
| N | 1:160 | 9 mm | Indoor | |
| 2mm | 1:152 | Indoor | ||
| TT scale | 1:120 | 12 mm | Indoor | |
| 3mm | 1:101 | Indoor | ||
| HO | 1:87 | 16.5 mm | Indoor | |
| OO | 1:76.2 | 16.5 mm | Indoor | |
| S | 1:64 | Indoor | ||
| O | 1:48 | Indoor | ||
| 1 | 1:32 | 44.45 | Garden; live steam | |
| H | 1:24 | 45 mm | Garden; live steam | |
| G | 1:22.5 | 45 mm | Garden; live steam | |
| 1:12 | Garden; live steam | |||
| 1:4 | Live steam |
Confusion arises from indiscriminate use of "scale" and "gauge" synonymously. The word "scale" strictly refers to the proportional size of the model, while "gauge" strictly applies to the measurement between the inside faces of the rails. It is completely incorrect to refer to the mainstream scales as "HO gauge", "N gauge, "Z gauge", etc. This is further complicated by the fact some scales use several different gauges; for example, HO scale uses 16.5 mm as the standard gauge of , 12 mm to represent gauge (HOm), and (HOn3-1/2), and 9 mm to represent a prototype gauge of .
The most popular scale to go with a given gauge was often arrived at through the following roundabout process: German artisans would take strips of metal of standard metric size to construct their products from blueprints dimensioned in inches. "Four mm to the foot" yielded the 1:76.2 size of the British "OO scale", which is anomalously used on the standard HO/OO scale (16.5 mm gauge from 3.5 mm/foot scale) tracks, because early electric motors weren't available commercially in smaller sizes. Today, most scale sizes are internationally standardized, with the notable exceptions of O scale and N scale.
There are three different versions of the "O" scale, each of which uses tracks of 32 mm for the standard gauge. The American version follows a dollhouse scale of 1:48, sometimes called "quarter-gauge" as in "one-quarter-inch to the foot". The British version continued the pattern of sub-contracting to Germans, so, at 7 mm to the foot, it works out to a scale of 1:43.5. Later, the European authority of model railroad firms MOROP declared that the "O" gauge (still 32 mm) must use the scale of 1:45, to allow wheel, railway tire, and splasher clearance for smaller than realistic curved sections.
N scale trains were first commercially produced at 1:160 scale in 1962 by the Arnold company of Nuremberg. This standard size was imported to the US by firms such as the Aurora Plastics Corporation. However, the early N-scale motors would not fit in the smaller models of British locomotives, so the British N gauge was standardized to allow a slightly larger body size. Similar sizing problems with Japanese prototypes led to adoption of a 1:150 scale standard there. Since space is more limited in Japanese houses, N scale has become more popular there than HO scale.
The majority of aircraft modelers concern themselves with depiction of real-life aircraft, but there are some modelers who 'bend' history by modeling aircraft that either never actually flew or existed, or by painting them in a color scheme that did not actually exist. This is commonly referred to as 'What-if' or 'Alternative' modeling, and the most common theme is 'Luftwaffe 1946' or 'Luftwaffe '46'. This theme stems from the idea of modeling German secret projects that never saw the light of day due to the close of World War II. This concept has been extended to include British, Russian, and US experimental projects that never made it into production.
Flying model aircraft are built for aerodynamic research and for recreation (aeromodeling).
Recreational models are often made to resemble some real type. However the aerodynamic requirements of a small model are different from those of a full-size craft, so flying models are seldom fully accurate to scale. Flying model aircraft are one of three types: free flight, control line, and radio controlled. Some flying model kits take many hours to put together, and some kits are almost ready to fly or ready to fly.
Static model rocket kits began as a development of model aircraft kits, yet the scale of 1:72 V.close never caught on. Scales 1:48 and 1:96 are most frequently used. There are some rockets of scales 1:128, , and , but Russian firms put their large rockets in 1:288. Heller SA offers some models in the scale of 1:125.
Science fiction space ships are heavily popular in the modeling community. In 1966, with the release of the television show , AMT corporation released an model of the Starship Enterprise. This has been followed over the decades by a complete array of various starships, shuttlecraft, and from the Star Trek franchise. The 1977 release of the first Star Wars film and the 1978 TV series Battlestar Galactica also spawned lines of licensed model kits in scales ranging from 1:24 for fighters and smaller ships, to 1:1000, 1:1400, and 1:2500 for most main franchise ships, and up to 1:10000 for the larger Star Wars ships (for especially objects like the and Super Star Destroyers, even smaller scales are used). Finemolds in Japan have recently released a series of high quality injection molded Star Wars in , and this range is supplemented by from Fantastic Plastic.
In America, a series of cars was developed from at first cast metal and later styrene models ("promos") offered at new-car dealerships to drum up interest. The firm Revell, and later Tamiya, first produced them in a scale derived from the Architect's scale: , while the firms AMT, Jo-Han, and Revell chose the scale of 1:25. Monogram later switched to this scale after the firm was purchased by Revell. Some cars are also made in , and rolling toys are often made on the scale . Chinese die-cast manufacturers have introduced 1/72 scale into their range. The smaller scales are usually die-cast cars and not the in the class as model cars. Except in rare occasions, Johnny Lightning and Ertl-made die-cast cars were sold as kits for buyers to assemble. are also used in car design.
Trucks are also found as diecast models in and injection molded kits (and children's toys) in . Recently some manufacturers have appeared in like Code 3. die-cast trucks|alt=|center|frame]]
Construction vehicle models are almost always made in , particularly because the cranes at this scale are often three to four feet tall when extended and larger scales would be unsuited for display on a desk or table. These models are popular as children's toys in Germany. In the US they are commonly sold as promotional models for new construction equipment, commissioned by the manufacturer of the prototype real-world equipment. The major manufacturers in Germany are Conrad and NZG, with some competition from Chinese firms that have been entering the market.
The most prolific manufacturer of mecha models is Bandai, whose gunpla were a strong influence in the genre in the 1980s. Even today, Gundam kits are the most numerous in the mecha modeling genre, usually with dozens of new releases every year. The features of modern Gundam model kits, such as color molding and Snap-fit, have become the standard expectations for other mecha model kits.
Due to the fantasy nature of most anime robots, and the necessary simplicity of cel-animated designs, mecha models lend themselves well to stylized work, improvisations, and simple Scratch building. One of Gundam's contributions to the genre was the use of a gritty wartime backstory as a part of the fantasy, and so it is almost equally fashionable to build the robots in a weathered, beaten style, as would often be expected for AFV kits as to build them in a more stylish, pristine manner.
Model kits of and from popular franchises such as DC Entertainment and Marvel Entertainment are also sold, as are models of real-world celebrities, such as Marilyn Monroe and Elvis Presley.
One type of assembly kit sold as educational features skeletons and anatomical structure of humans and animals. Such kits may have unique features such as glow-in-the-dark pieces. Dinosaurs are a popular subject for such models. There are also , which are often figures of anime characters in multiple parts that require assembly.
Just before the Second World War, the American naval historian (and science fiction author) Fletcher Pratt published a book on naval wargaming as could be done by civilians using cut off at the waterline to be moved on the floors of basketball courts and similar locales. The scale he used was non-standard (reported as 1:666), and may have been influenced by toy ships then available, but as the hobby progressed, and other rule sets came into use, it was progressively supplemented by the series 1:600, 1:1200, and 1:2400. In Britain, 1:3000 became popular and these models also have come into use in the USA. These had the advantage of approximating the nautical mile as 120 inches, 60 inches, and 30 inches, respectively. As the knot is based on this mile and a 60-minute hour, this was quite handy.
After the war, firms emerged to produce models from the same white metal used to make toy soldiers. Lines Bros, a British firm, offered a tremendously wide range of waterline merchant and naval as well as dockyard equipment in the scale 1:1200 which were die-cast in Zamak. In the US, at least one manufacturer, of the wartime 1:1200 recognition models, Comet, made them available for the civilian market postwar, which also drove the change to this scale. In addition, continental European manufacturers and European ship book publishers had adopted the 1:1250 drawing scale because of its similar convenience in size for both models and comparison drawings in books.
A prestige scale for , comparable to that of 1:32 for fighter planes, is 1:72, producing huge models, but there are very few kits marketed in this scale. There are now several clubs around the world for those who choose to scratch-build radio-controlled model ships and submarines in 1:72, which is often done because of the compatibility with naval aircraft kits. For the smaller ships, plank-on-frame or other wood construction kits are offered in the traditional shipyard scales of 1:96, 1:108, or 1:192 (half of 1:96). In injection-molded plastic kits, Airfix makes full-hull models in the scale the Royal Navy has used to compare the relative sizes of ships: 1:600. Revell makes some kits to half the scale of the US Army standard: 1:570. Some American and foreign firms have made models in a proportion from the Engineer's scale: "one-sixtieth-of-an-inch-to-the-foot", or 1:720.
This use of physical mechanisms was echoed in the later games of Fred Jane, whose rules required throwing darts at ship silhouettes; his collection of data on the world's fleets was later published and became renowned. Dice have largely replaced this toy mayhem for consumers.
For over a century, toy soldiers were made of white metal, a lead-based alloy, often in architect's scale-based ratios in the English-speaking countries, and called . After the Second World War, such toys were on the market for children but now made of a safe plastic softer than styrene. American children called these "army men". Many sets were made in the new scale of . A few styrene model kits of land equipment were offered in this and in 1:48 and 1:32 scales. However, these were swept away by the number of kits in the scale of .
Those who continued to develop miniature wargaming preferred smaller scale models, the soldiers still made of soft plastic. Airfix particularly wanted people to buy scale soldiers and tanks to go with "00" gauge train equipment. Roco offered scale styrene military vehicles to go with "HO" gauge model houses. However, although there is no scale model railroad, more toy soldiers are now offered in this scale because it is the same as the popular aircraft scale. The number of fighting vehicles in this scale is also increasing, although the number of auxiliary vehicles available is far fewer than in .
A more recent development, especially in wargaming of land battles, is 15 mm white metal miniatures, often referred to as 1:100. The use of 15 mm scale metals has grown quickly since the early 1990s as they allow a more affordable option over 28 mm if large battles are to be refought, or a large number of vehicles represented. The rapid rise in the detail and quality of castings at 15 mm scale has also helped to fuel their uptake by the wargaming community.
Armies use smaller scales still. The US Army specifies models of the scale 1:285 for its sand table wargaming. There are metal ground vehicles and helicopters in this scale, which is a near "one-quarter-inch-to-six-feet" scale. The continental powers of NATO have developed the similar scale of 1:300, even though metric standardizers really don't like any divisors other than factors of 10, 5, and 2, so maps are not commonly offered in Europe in scales with a "3" in the denominator.
Consumer wargaming has since expanded into fantasy realms, employing scales large enough to be painted in imaginative detail - so called "heroic" 28 mm figures, (roughly ). Firms that produce these make small production lots of white metal.
Alternatively to the commercial models, some also tend to use scraps to achieve home-made warfare models. While it doesn't always involve wargaming, some modelers insert realistic procedures, enabling a certain realism such as firing guns or shell deflection on small scale models.
Aircraft
Static model aircraft are commonly built using plastic, but wood, metal, card and paper can also be used. Models are sold painted and assembled, painted but not assembled (snap-fit), or unpainted and not assembled. The most popular types of aircraft to model are commercial airliners and military aircraft. Popular aircraft scales are, in order of increasing size: , , (the most numerous), , , , , 1:6, and . Some European models are available at more metric scales such as . The highest quality models are made from injection molded plastic or resin casting. Models made from Vacuum forming plastic are generally for the more skilled builder. More inexpensive models are made from heavy Paper plane or card stock. Ready-made die-cast metal models are also very popular. As well as the traditional scales, die-cast models are available in , , , , and .
Rockets and spacecraft
Model rocketry dates back to the Space Race of the 1950s. The first model rocket engine was designed in 1954 by Orville Carlisle, a licensed pyrotechnics expert, and his brother Robert, a model airplane enthusiast.
Cars
Although the British scale for 0 gauge was first used for made of rectilinear and circular parts, it was the origin of the European scale for cast or injection molded model cars. MOROP's specification of 1:45 scale for European 0 does not alter the series of cars in , as it has the widest distribution in the world.
Buses and trucks
Typically found in , most manufacturers of commercial vehicles and heavy equipment commission scale models made of die-cast metal as promotional items to give to prospective customers. These are also popular children's toys and collectibles. The major manufacturers of these items are Conrad and NZG Models in Germany. Corgi Toys also makes some 1:50 models, as well as Dutch maker Tekno.
Construction vehicles
A model construction vehicle (or engineering vehicle) is a scale model or die-cast toy that represents a construction vehicle such as a bulldozer, excavator, crane, concrete pump, backhoe, etc.
Robots
Japanese firms have marketed toys and models of what are often called mecha, nimble humanoid fighting robots. The robots, which appear in animated shows (anime), are often depicted at a size between 15-20m in height, and so scales of 1:100 and are common for these subjects, though other scales such as are commonly used for and related subjects of different size.
Live action figures
Scale models of people and animals are found in a wide variety of venues, and may be either single-piece objects or kits that must be assembled, usually depending on the purpose of the model. For instance, models of people as well as both domestic and wild animals are often produced for display in model cities or railroads to provide a measure of detail or realism, and scaled relative to the trains, buildings, and other accessories of a certain line of models. If a line of trains or buildings does not feature models of living creatures, those who build the models often buy these items separately from another line so they can feature people or animals. In other cases, scale model lines feature living creatures exclusively, often focusing on educational interests.
Ships and naval war-gaming
Michele Morciano says small scale ship models were produced in about 1905 linked to the wargaming rules and other publications of Fred T. Jane. The company that standardized on 1:1200 was Bassett-Lowke in 1908. The British Admiralty subsequently contracted with Bassett-Lowke and other companies and individual craftsmen to produce large numbers of recognition models, to this scale, in 1914–18.
Tanks and wargaming
Early in the 20th century, the British historian and science fiction author H. G. Wells published a book, Little Wars, on how to play at in miniature. His books use 2" lead figures, particularly those manufactured by Britains. His fighting system employed spring-loaded that shot .
Engines
Model building for building an engine model are available, especially for kids. The most popular are the internal combustion, Steam engine, Jet engine, and Stirling engine. Usually they move using an electric motor or a hand crank, and many of them have a transparent case to show the internal process in action.
Buildings
Most hobbyists who build models of buildings do so as part of a diorama to enhance their other models, such as a model railroad or model war machines. As a stand-alone hobby, building models are probably most popular among enthusiasts of construction toys such as Erector, Lego and K'Nex. Famous landmarks such as the Empire State Building, Big Ben and the White House are common subjects. Standard scales have not emerged in this hobby. Model railroaders use railroad scales for their buildings: HO scale (1:87), OO scale (1:76), N scale (1:160), and O scale (1:43). Lego builders use Legoland scale (1:20), minifigure scale (1:48), and micro scale (1:192)In the Lego community, micro scale can refer to anything smaller than minifig scale (1:48), but 1:192 is occasionally set as a standard micro scale. This ratio is arrived at by scaling a person (6 feet) to the height of a Lego brick (3/8 inches). See Generally, the larger the building, the smaller the scale. Model buildings are commonly made from plastic, foam, balsa wood or paper. are published in the form of a book, and some models are manufactured like 3-D puzzles. Professionally, building models are used by architects and salesmen.
House portrait
Typically found in and also called model house, model home or display house, this type of model is usually found in stately homes or specially designed houses. Sometimes this kind of model is commissioned to mark a special date like an anniversary or the completion of the architecture, or these models might be used by salesmen selling homes in a new neighborhood.
Miniatures in contemporary art
Miniatures and model kits are used in contemporary art whereby artists use both scratch built miniaturizations or commercially manufactured model kits to construct a dialogue between object and viewer. The role of the artist in this type of miniature is not necessarily to re-create an historical event or achieve naturalist realism, but rather to use scale as a mode of articulation in generating conceptual or theoretical exploration. Political, conceptual, and architectural examples are provided by noted artists such as Bodys Isek Kingelez, Jake and Dinos Chapman (otherwise known as the Chapman Brothers), Ricky Swallow, Shaun Wilson, Sven Christoffersen, or the Psikhelekedana artists from Mozambique, James Casebere, Oliver Boberg, and Daniel Dorall.
See also
References and notes
Notes
(2026). 9780470409435, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. ISBN 9780470409435
(1999). 9780849324697, CRC Press LLC. ISBN 9780849324697
Further reading
(2026). 9780470409435, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. ISBN 9780470409435
(1999). 9780849324697, CRC Press LLC. ISBN 9780849324697
(2026). 9781402086816, Springer. ISBN 9781402086816
(2026). 9783319103082, Springer. ISBN 9783319103082
External links
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